Category: The Trinity Doctrine

Not a Church Decision

In the traditional account of the 4th-century Arian Controversy, the Council of Constantinople in the year 381 finally rejected Arianism and put an end to that controversy. However, the Controversy was brought to an end by an emperor, namely, by Emperor Theodosius. Show More

Edit of Thessalonica

The Controversy was mainly between Nicenes and Arians. While Nicene theology dominated in the West, Arianism dominated in the East. Theodosius became the Eastern Emperor in 379 but was a strong Nicene supporter. Already in 380, the year before the Council, through a Roman Law (the Edict of Thessalonica), with the support of the Western emperor, he made the pro-Nicene version of the Christian faith the official and sole legal religion of the Roman Empire. In the edict, he named bishops Damasus of Rome and Peter of Alexandria, the main defenders of Nicene theology after Athanasius died in 373. This was not a church decree but applied to all Roman citizens. Show More

That edict outlawed Arianism and said of those who would contravene it that they would suffer the punishment which Roman authority shall decide to inflict (Bettenson, p.22).

Bishop of Constantinople

Having announced the State Religion of the Roman Empire, Theodosius assumed unilateral control of who the leading bishops would be:

At the time, the bishop of Constantinople was an Arian (a Homoian – Demophilus). On 24 November 380, still before the Council of Constantinople and two days after Theodosius had arrived in Constantinople for the first time, after giving Demophilus the opportunity to accept the Nicene faith, which he declined, Emperor Theodosius drove Demophilus out of the city (Hanson, pp. 804-5).

Theodosius then also unilaterally accepted Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers and the leader of the relatively small Nicene community in the city, as de facto bishop of Constantinople, the Empire’s capital city (Ayres, p. 253).

Theodosius also ordered the Arian Lucius, who was at that time the bishop of Alexandria, to be chased out of that city (Hanson, p. 805).

After Gregory Nazianzen had resigned during the Council, Theodosius replaced him with Nectarius, who was the equivalent of the major of the city, but who was still unbaptized. It was the Council that rubber-stamped it, but since Nectarius was still not baptized and a civil servant under the emperor’s control, it clearly was the emperor’s decision. Nectarius was hastily baptised and ordained (Hanson, p. 811).

Further Edicts

In the next year (381), Theodosius issued two more edicts, one before and one after the Council:

In a second edict in January 381, still before the council, Theodosius forbade non-Nicenes from settling in the cities (Boyd). That edict also determined that heretics are not allowed to meet for worship within the walls of any town (Hanson, p. 805; Ayres, 259).

In the third edict, immediately after the Council in 381, Theodosius confiscated all Arian churches and gave them to Nicene bishops (Ayres, 252; Hanson, pp. 820-1).

The Council

The Council was under the complete control of the Emperor. He did not attend personally but monitored the developments closely (Hanson, p. 806):

The first act of the Council was to affirm the appointment of Gregory of Nazianzus, whom the emperor already previously accepted as the de facto bishop of Constantinople (Hanson, p. 806).

His control over the Council is further confirmed by his appointment of Nectarius, the unbaptized ‘major’ of the city, as presiding officer after the first presiding officer (Meletius) died and after the second (Gregory) resigned (Hanson, p. 807; Ayres, p. 254-5).

The Council was not representative. Since all other views have already been outlawed, and only Nicene supporters were invited and admitted. Specifically, only people who supported Meletian, who followed the Cappadocians, and who was the first presiding officer, were invited (Hanson, p. 806). Show More

Gregory of Nazianzus, the leader of the Nicene party in the city, who presided after Meletius died, “had strongly opposed any compromise with the Homoiousians” (Ayres, p. 255). The Homoiousians were the ‘Arians’ closest to the Homoousians (the supporters of the Nicene Creed). Therefore, if Gregory vehemently opposed any compromise with them, he also opposed compromise with any of the other Arian views.

Summary

It was not the Council of Constantinople in the year 381 that finally rejected Arianism and put an end to the controversy but the emperors. Already in 380, the year before the Council, the emperors made the pro-Nicene version of Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, outlawed Arianism, and promised dissenters the punishment that Roman authority would decide to inflict. 

The emperors also appointed the bishops. Emperor Theodosius drove the Arian bishop of Constantinople out of the city and replaced him with a pro-Nicene bishop. And, after that pro-Nicene bishop had resigned, Emperor Theodosius replaced him with one of his unbaptized government officials as bishop of the Empire’s capital.

Through further edicts, Emperor Theodosius forbade non-Nicenes from settling in any city or town, prohibited Arian worship meetings, and confiscated all Arian churches, giving them to Nicene bishops. The Arian Controversy began soon after persecution ceased and ended when persecution resumed. 

The ‘Ecumenical’ Council was under the complete control of the Emperor. For example, it affirmed the emperor’s appointment of a pro-Nicene bishop and accepted the emperor’s unbaptized government official as chair. The Council was also not representative. Since all other views were already outlawed, and only Nicene supporters were invited and admitted. 

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What no other Emperor did

Theodosius succeeded where other emperors failed because he did what no other Emperor had done:

He unilaterally made Roman Law to define the sole legal religion of the empire. No other emperor did something similar. Other emperors called and manipulated church councils to force the church to comply with their wishes.

He unilaterally exiled the bishop of Constantinople (the Empire’s capital) and appointed a pro-Nicene as bishop. The other emperors merely influenced and manipulated synods and councils to achieve that purpose.

His persecution of ‘heretics’ was far worse than any other Christian emperor. No other emperor forbade ‘heretics’ from living and worshiping in the cities or towns. His persecution may be compared to Diocletian’s Great Persecution of AD 303-313, which was Rome’s final attempt to destroy Christianity. Show More

Theodosius not only legislated the Empire’s official faith, but he also unilaterally decided who complied. He required all non-Nicene Christian factions to submit their theologies in writing to him, and he decided which complied. Show More

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Backed by a Consensus?

Hanson believed that Theodosius was successful because he was backed by a consensus. Show More

I am not sure that a “consensus” existed, as an overview of the history of the Controversy will confirm:

‘Arianism’ (the view that the Son is a distinct divine Person, subordinate to the Father) was the traditional teaching of the church during the first three centuries and into the fourth. This was the view in the East, where the church originated and where the bulk of the church resided during the first three centuries. Show More

However, in the middle of the third century, Rome, represented by its bishop Dionysius, taught the competing view, namely, that the Father and Son are a single hypostasis (Person). Show More

When the fourth century began, while Arius maintained the traditional Alexandrian view (the Son is distinct), Alexander by then had accepted the Roman view that the Father and Son are a single Person (hypostasis). Show More

At Nicaea, Alexander’s ‘one Person’ view dominated because the emperor took his part. Show More

However, in the decade after Nicaea, the decisions at Nicaea were effectively overturned. All exiled Arians were allowed to return, and all leading Nicenes were exiled. After that, the term homoousios disappeared. While Constantine remained alive, he ensured unity in the church. Show More

However, after he had died in 337, the Empire divided into East and West. This allowed the Western Church to return to its Monarchian roots, teaching that the Father and Son are one hypostasis, meaning, one Person with a single mind. This can be seen in the Serdica Manifesto of 433, the only Western Creed that we have from the 4th century that was not emperor-manipulated. On the other hand, the Eastern Church remained ‘Arian,’ teaching that the Son is a distinct Person (a hypostasis) with a distinct mind. This can be seen in the Eastern Dedication Creed of 431. Show More

In the 350s, the Empire was once again under a single emperor (Constantius), who forced the West to accept an ‘Arian’ creed. Consequently, Jerome wrote in 360: “The whole world groaned and marveled that it was Arian” (Lienhard). Show More

For much of the next two decades, the Empire was again divided into East and West, again allowing the West to return to its Monarchian views. But the East remained ‘Arian.’ Show More

During these decades, a severe conflict developed within the pro-Nicene camp. While the Cappadocians taught, like the Arians, that the Son is a distinct Person, Athanasius and the Western Nicenes continued to teach that the Son is part of the Father. Show More

Theodosius’ edict reveals that he was a Western Nicene. He took the Western Nicene view that the Father and Son are a single Person. Show More

So, when Theodosius became emperor in the East, outlawed Arianism, prohibited Arians from living and worshiping in the cities and towns, and confiscated their churches, there was no consensus, as Hanson claimed. If there was such a consensus, why did he have to issue a Roman Law, exile the homoian bishop of the capital, and severely persecute the Arians?

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Consensus was not the Issue.

To some extent, the question of a consensus is irrelevant because the decision of what the church must believe was always the decision of the emperor, irrespective of a consensus. Show More

Church and State blended. Constantine established the precedent for imperial intervention in ecclesiastical affairs. Theodosius and Gratian finally and decisively fixed the alliance of Church and State. Show More

The Church decided, and communicated its decisions, through the official network of the empire. Show More

For example, only emperors could call church councils. Everybody recognised the right of an Emperor to call a council, or even to veto or quash its being called. Even the bishop of Rome was not able to call a general council on his own authority. Show More

The emperors allowed the bishops political and social power. But that means that their election was more than a church matter. Consequently, the emperors exercised a direct influence on the election of bishops.  Show More

Theodosius did not succeed.

However, lastly. Theodosius was not the end of Arianism. The controversy continued into the fifth century. Show More

During the time during the 4th century when ‘Arianism’ dominated, the church sent missionaries to the Gothic nations. The Goth Ulfilas translated part of the Bible into the Gothic language and had success in converting the Goths to Arian Christianity. Show More

The conversion of the Goths led to the conversion of other Germanic nations, such as the Vandals, Langobards, Svevi, and Burgundians, to Arian Christianity. Show More

So, when Theodosius in 380 made Nicene Christianity the sole religion of the Romans, the Germanic nations remained Arian. Consequently, after the fall of Rome in the fifth century, Europe was ruled by Arian nations. In the map, red reflect Arian areas and Green Nicene areas. Show More

It was only after the Roman Empire again regained control of the Western Empire in the sixth century that Arianism was finally brought to its knees (see here).

Conclusion

Emperor Theodosius succeeded where others failed because he did what no other emperor had done. He determined the sole religion of the Roman Empire through Roman Law, without consulting a church council, forbade heretics from living in the cities and towns, and from meeting for worship, and confiscated the churches of dissenting groups.

However, Theodosius did not succeed. His laws applied only to the Romans. In the next century, Germanic took control of the Western Empire, and they were Arians. By the end of the fifth century, Europe was Arian again.

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