Homoousios was not regarded as important at Nicaea.

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

The Nicene Creed of AD 325 states that the Son is homoousios (of the same substance as) the Father. In the traditional account of the Arian Controversy, this term is the key word of the Creed.  [Show More]

However, soon after Nicaea, it disappeared from the debate. For more than 20 years, nobody mentioned it, not even Athanasius, the great hero of the Arian Controversy and defender of the Nicene Creed, nor the Western church, which is often described as the stalwart defender of Nicaea throughout the fourth century.  [Show More]

It wasn’t until the mid-350s, some 30 years after Nicaea, that Athanasius re-introduced the term into the debate. Only after that did the West slowly begin to defend it and the Eusebians began to attack it. [Show More]

In other words, it was not regarded as important at Nicaea. [Show More]

This article explains why it was accepted at Nicaea, why it disappeared from the debate, and why it again became part of the Controversy 30 years later.

This article quotes extensively from leading scholars. Although almost all quotes are hidden in ‘read more’ section, they are a crucial part of this article.

Authors Quoted

Based on discoveries and research over the past century, leading scholars today explain the fourth-century Arian Controversy very differently from scholars in preceding centuries. This article quotes from the main books on the subject from the last 50 years. [Show More]

WHY INCLUDED

Athanasius claimed that homoousion was inserted in the Creed as an anti-Arian term, namely, to force Arius and his supporters to reject the Creed so that the emperor could exile them. But Hanson says that it was included as a pro-Sabellian term, namely, because the Sabellians preferred it.

It was inserted in the Nicene Creed because Constantine insisted on it. Constantine took Alexander’s part in the dispute. Alexander viewed the Father and Son as a single Person (a single hypostasis). Since the majority of the delegates were from the East, and since the Eastern Church regarded the Son to be a distinct Person, Alexander’s theology was in the minority. For that reason, Alexander allied with the other ‘one hypostasis’ theologians, namely, the Sabellians. This gave the Sabellians much influence in the Council. Since the emperor had taken Alexander’s part, he insisted in the term because the Sabellians preferred it. [Show More]

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However, although it may be true that homoousios was inserted in the Creed to get Arius exiled, most delegates strongly objected to the concept. As discussed here, the Eusebians opposed the term because it is not Biblical, was borrowed from pagan philosophy, was not part of the standard Christian language of the day, and was already condemned as associated with the heresy of Sabellianism. Furthermore, ‘same substance’ implies that God has a body, which nobody was willing to grant. The Dedication Creed of 341 shows what the majority at Nicaea really believed, when not compelled by an emperor. They opposed both Arius and the term homoousios. The decisions of Nicaea were really the work of a minority.

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More or less the same people who attended Nicaea also attended the Dedication Council 16 years later and the Dedication Creed opposed both Arius and also the term homoousios. So, the Nicene Creed does not reflect die views of the majority: [Show More]

 


Did Ossius propose the term?

If Ossius, the chairperson, proposed the term, as some think, then it was on instruction of the emperor, for he was the emperor’s agent.

“According to the Arians … the Nicene Creed was presented by Ossius of Cordova in his capacity as president of the assembly.” (P.F. Beatrice) However, Ossius did not preside because of his position in the church. He was the bishop of the “obscure” see of Cordova (Hanson, p. 155). He presided in his capacity “as the Emperor’s representative” (Hanson, p. 154) and represented “the Emperor’s interest.” (Hanson, p. 156) 

The emperor was the final authority.

Given the modern culture of religious freedom, the reader might find it strange that an emperor was able to insist on the inclusion of a keyword in a church creed. However, the Roman Empire was not a democracy and religious freedom did not exist. The empire was ruled by the general who commanded the strongest army. Consequently, the emperors decided which religions were allowed and also acted as the final judge in religious disputes.

“If we ask the question, what was considered to constitute the ultimate authority in doctrine (during the Arian Controversy), there can be only one answer. The will of the Emperor was the final authority.” (Hanson, p. 849)

The so-called ‘ecumenical’ church councils of the fourth century were “the very invention and creation of the Emperor” (Hanson, p. 855). “Everybody recognised the right of an Emperor to call a council, or even to veto or quash its being called” (Hanson, p. 849-50). “The Emperor was expected to dominate and control them” (Hanson, p. 855).

Conclusion

The term was not mentioned for some decades after Nicaea because the Nicene Creed was the work of a minority under the protection of the emperor, while the majority was most uncomfortable with this term.

Nicaea was not regarded as binding.

Furthermore, at the time, the Nicene Creed was not regarded as binding. It was a temporary solution to an immediate problem. 

“Many modern readers assume that the Nicene creed was intended at its promulgation to stand as a binding and universal formula of Christian faith.” (Ayres, p. 85) However, “by the time Nicaea met, Church leaders … had no precedent for the idea of a council that would legislate for the Church as a whole.” (Ayres, p. 87) “Councils were not expected to produce precise statements of belief.” (Ayres, p. 87)

“All the bishops at Nicaea would have understood their local ‘baptismal’ creed to be a sufficient definition of Christian belief.” (Ayres, p. 85)

For a further discussion of this point, see Ayres – 4.1 The Nicene Creed as a Standard of Faith.

HOW WAS HOMOOUSIOS REVIVED?

As stated above, the term homoousios was re-introduced into the Controversy in the 350s; about 30 years after Nicaea. This section explains the history chronologically.

The West was not at Nicaea.

At first, the West was not part of the Controversy. For example, the Westerners at the Council represented a tiny minority.

At Nicaea in 325, “around 250–300 attended, drawn almost entirely from the eastern half of the empire.” (Ayres, p. 19)

“The Westerners at the Council represented a tiny minority.” “The Eastern Church was always the pioneer and leader in theological movements in the early Church.” (Hanson, p. 170)

Post-Nicaea Correction

The inclusion of the term homoousios caused an intense struggle during the years immediately after Nicaea. Sabellians claimed the homoousios in the Creed as a victory for their side but that struggle resulted in the exile of all leading Sabellians. After that, homoousios disappears from the debate. (See here.)

Period of no Controversy

As already mentioned, after the post-Nicaea Correction, the Nicene Creed and Homoousios were not part of the Controversy for more than 25 years. In fact, there was no controversy.

“At some times there was almost no controversy at all. If there was any controversy from 330 to 341, it was a controversy about the behaviour of Athanasius in his see of Alexandria.” (Hanson, p. xviii)

“There was a long period of confusion and uncertainty from 341 to 357 when it was far from clear what the controversy was about, if there was a controversy.” (Hanson, p. xviii)

In other words, the Council of Nicaea brought the dispute between Arius and his bishop Alexander to an end. The Real Controversy began only decades later:

Athanasius’ Polemical Strategy

After he was exiled in 335, Athanasius developed a masterful polemical strategy to explain why he was exiled. He claimed that:

      • Arius developed a novel heresy.
      • He (Athanasius) represents scriptural orthodoxy.
      • He was exiled for his opposition to Arianism.
      • An Arian Conspiracy manipulated the council of Tyre to exile him for violence, of which he was innocent.
      • His opponents are ‘Arians’, meaning followers of Arius’ condemned theology.

None of these points are true but the important point for the current article is that homoousios was not yet part of his polemical strategy.

During those decades after Nicaea, while nobody thinks about homoousios, Athanasius and Marcellus were both exiled from the East and sent to the West (Rome). There they met and joined forces against the East:

“Athanasius and Marcellus now seem to have made common cause against those who insisted on distinct hypostases in God.” (Ayres, p. 106)

In Rome, Athanasius developed his polemical strategy:

“Athanasius’ engagement with Marcellus in Rome seems to have encouraged Athanasius towards the development of” “an increasingly sophisticated account of his enemies;” “the full flowering of a polemical strategy that was to shape accounts of the fourth century for over 1,500 years;” “a masterpiece of the rhetorical art.” (Ayres, p. 106-7)

What was his polemical strategy?

“Athanasius’ account begins by presenting Arius as the originator of a new heresy.” (Ayres, p. 107) In contrast, “Athanasius presents himself as the preserver of the one theological tradition that is equivalent with scriptural orthodoxy.” (Ayres, p. 107)

Athanasius described “his enemies as ‘Arians’ seeking to perpetuate a theology stemming from Arius.” (Ayres, p. 106) “To this end Athanasius quotes extensively from Arius’ Thalia.” (Ayres, p. 107) See also – Athanasius invented Arianism.

This polemical strategy is discussed further in – The Creation of ‘Arianism’. It presents a misleading picture of that Controversy:

“If Athanasius’ account does shape our understanding, we risk misconceiving the nature of the fourth-century crisis.” (Williams, p. 234)

“Once we begin to grasp the problems with Athanasius’ rhetorical unmasking of ‘Arians’ then we need to look beyond the Athanasian terminology of an ‘Arian’ conspiracy to get a more accurate sense of how to understand non-Marcellan and non-Athanasian eastern theologies during this period.” (Ayres, p. 432)

Rome accepted Athanasius.

Using his polemical strategy, Athanasius appealed to the bishop of Rome. The bishop accepted his version of reality, called a council, and vindicated both him and Marcellus.

The subsequent events are described in more detail here. In brief:

“Athanasius appealed to Julius of Rome in 339–40 by using his strategy of narrating a theological conspiracy of ‘Arians’. His success had a profound impact on the next few years of the controversy.” (Ayres, p. 108)

Julius of Rome held a council in Rome which “quickly vindicated Marcellus and Athanasius.” (Ayres, p. 109)

“Julius wrote to the east in 341 in a letter which shows the strong influence of the emerging Athanasian account of ‘Arianism’.” (Ayres, p. 109)

Caused division between East and West

It is traditionally thought that the West had always supported Nicaea. In reality, similar to the East, most in the West believed that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are three distinct Beings. However, after the West had declared Athanasius and Marcellus orthodox, cracks in that unity began to appear. That was the real beginning of the ‘Arian’ Controversy.

In Ayres’ discussion of the Western (Latin) Theologists at the time of Nicaea, he concludes that they believed more or less the same as the theologians in the East:

“These Latin theologians have as far to travel towards later pro-Nicene theology as the eastern trajectories.” (Ayres, p. 75)

“Ironically, an anti-monarchian, anti-‘modalist’ polemic fundamentally shapes these early Latin theologians, and that is taken so often to be determining the future course of a unitary western theology!” (Ayres, p. 74)

This last quote says that the West opposed the idea that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are one Being.

So, around the time of Nicaea, there was harmony between East and West. It was the West’s acceptance of Athanasius’ polemical strategy that first caused division between East and West:

“Once Julius had acted we begin to see divisions between the Church in the eastern and western halves of the empire emerging.” (Ayres, p. 109)

This, in the early 340s, was the real beginning of the ‘Arian’ Controversy. However, the bishop of Rome’s acceptance of Athanasius’ strategy did not mean that the entire West accepted it.

“We should … be cautious in our reading of these divisions. The divisions we initially observe are between one group of eastern bishops taking their lead from Eusebius of Nicomedia and Julius and his immediate associates. We must be wary of reading this as reflecting a simple division between eastern and western theology. Even when just such a division appears to come clearly into the open at the Council of Serdica in 343, even there the participants cannot usefully be divided in purely geographic terms.” (Ayres, p. 109-110)

Constantius strived for unity.

In the 340s, while the empire remained divided East and West, the division between the church in the East and West remained. However, after Constantius became emperor of the entire empire in the early 350s, he attempted to get the Western church to agree to the key eastern decisions of the previous few years.

In the same year that Julius wrote his letter to the East (AD 341), the East formulated the Dedication Creed which says that the Father, Son, and Spirit “are three in hypostasis but one in agreement.” Two years later, in 343, the West formulated a Manifesto at Serdica which “opted clearly for Una substantia meaning one hypostasis.” (Hanson, p. 201) There-after. the Western and Eastern churches continued to oppose one another. Since they were ruled by different emperors, there was little incentive to reconcile these opposing views.

However, in the early 350s, Constantius became emperor of the entire Roman Empire:

“Over the period AD 351–3, and after a complex civil war, the eastern Emperor Constantius achieved complete control of the whole empire.” (Ayres, p. 133)

“At this point Constantius found himself sole ruler of the Roman world and with the ability to push for a unified religious policy throughout his domains in a way no emperor had been able to do since the death of his father in 337.” (Ayres, p. 133)

He attempted to get the Western church to agree to the eastern Creeds:

“As his control over the west grew Constantius increased his attempts to get bishops to agree to the key eastern decisions of the previous few years.” (Ayres, p. 135)

“Through the 350s … we seem to see a growing opposition to Constantius’ attempts to force western councils to agree to the decrees of Sirmium 351.” (Ayres, p. 136)

He attempted to isolate Athanasius.

Since Constantius’ greatest enemy, both politically and in the church, was Athanasius, his primary goal was to isolate Athanasius.

“Athanasius had a desire for power; he suppressed ruthlessly whenever he could any opposition to him within his diocese … towards the end of his life he had reached a position in which his power (in Egypt), not only ecclesiastical but also political, was virtually beyond challenge.” (Hanson, p. 421)

Therefore, the emperor “attempted to get the condemnation of Athanasius and probably some sort of theological statement accepted throughout the west.” (Ayres, p. 135) With that double goal in mind, “the council of Sirmium in 351 set the trend for a series of councils.” (Ayres, p. 135) For here for a discussion of the Creed of 351.

Athanasius re-introduced Homoousios.

In response to the emperor’s attack on him, Athanasius incorporated homoousios into his polemical strategy, which was the basis for the schism between the East and West. Therefore, homoousios became part of the dispute. As argued above, that was in the mid-350s.

“He began to use it [homoousios] first in the De Deeretis and thereafter regularly in his theological works, defending it fiercely against all criticism of it. If we place De Deeretis in 356 or 357, we can perhaps see the reason for this change of policy. By then it had become abundantly clear not only that Constantius was everywhere trying to isolate Athanasius himself from ecclesiastical support both in the East and the West … Athanasius decided that he must begin a policy of defending the very words of N as a slogan or banner round which to gather.” (Hanson, p. 438)

It was a turn to Nicaea.

Athanasius and the West did not oppose Constantius because they defended Nicaea. Rather, they turned to Nicaea to strengthen their resistance to the emperor’s efforts.

“It seems unlikely that previous adherence to Nicaea motivated their (the West’s) growing opposition (to Constantius’ efforts): it is much more likely that events in the second half of the decade prompted a turn to Nicaea as a focus for their already strong opposition.” (Ayres, p. 136)

In the ‘West’ there were, already before 357, “the beginnings of attempts on the part of a few to turn to Nicaea as a standard against the direction of Constantius’ policies.” (Ayres, p. 139)

Anti-Nicene Accounts Emerged.

As stated above, anti-Nicene theologies, particularly Homoianism, emerged in the late 350s; only after Athanasius introduced homoousios into his polemical strategy.

For example, Homoian theology is specifically anti-Nicene. Particularly, it opposes ousia-language. For example, they were “refusing to allow ousia-terms of any kind into professions of faith.” (Williams, p. 234) It appeared only in the 350s:

“Though Homoian Arianism derived from the thought both of Eusebius of Caesarea and of Arius, we cannot with confidence detect it before the year 357, when it appears in the Second Sirmian Creed.” (Hanson, p. 558)

“Many of the theologies we have considered so far are non-Nicene more than anti-Nicene: only in the 350s do we begin to trace clearly the emergence of directly anti-Nicene accounts.” (Ayres, p. 139)

Homoousios divided the church.

As a result of the introduction of homoousios into the Controversy, the church divided into various factions. Those who accepted homoousios were divided between one-hypostasis and three-hypostases views. Those who rejected homoousios were divided between those who rejected all ousia (substance) language and those who did use the term in their theologies.

One-hypostasis Homo-ousians (Sabellians), such as Athanasius and Marcellus, interpreted homoousios as “one substance,” namely, as saying that Father and Son are one Being. See above the Council of Serdica in 343, where the Western delegates asserted ‘one hypostasis’.

Three-hypostases Homo-ousians, such as Basil of Caesarea and Meletius of Antioch, interpreted homoousios as “same substance,” namely, that Father and Son are two beings with the same type of substance. (See – Basil.)

The Homoi-ousians (from ὅμοιος, hómoios, “similar”) maintained that the Son’s substance is like the Father’s, but not the same.

The Heter-ousians said that the Son is like the Father but His substance is unlike the Father’s.

The Homo-ians, who remained the dominant emperor-supported faction, rejected all use of ousia-terms. They held that Jesus Christ is like the Father, without referencing ousia (essence or substance).


OTHER ARTICLES

Constantine ensured that Nicaea concluded what he thought best.

Introduction

Authors Quoted

The fourth-century Arian Controversy resulted the Church accepting the Trinity doctrine. However, over the past century, scholars have discovered that the traditional account of that Controversy, of how and why the church accepted the Trinity doctrine, is history according to the winner and a complete travesty. This article series is based mostly on the writings of scholars of the last 50 years, reflecting the revised account of that Controversy. Although most quotes are hidden in ‘read more’ sections, given the highly controversial nature of this subject, these quotes are a critical part of this article. [Show More]

Purpose

Different articles in this series discuss different errors in the traditional narrative. The current article describes the impact Emperor Constantine had at the Council of Nicaea, and on the Nicene Creed. It shows that the so-called first ecumenical council at Nicaea in 325 was actually the emperor’s meeting. He called and controlled it to achieve his own purpose. [Show More]

SUMMARY

Legalized Christianity – Religious freedom did not exist in the Roman Empire. The emperors decided which religions were allowed. After three centuries of persecution by the Roman authorities, Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in the year 313.

Wrote to Alexander and Arius – Even before Constantine understood the matter, he wrote to Alexander and Arius to stop their quarreling. This shows that he did not get involved because of a desire for right doctrine, but because he could not afford, for political reasons, a split in the church.

Approved the Council at Antioch – A few months before the Council of Nicaea, an “anti-Arian Council” was held in Antioch, consisting mainly of people who sympathized with Alexander. (Hanson, p. 130-1, 147, 149) It provisionally excommunicated Eusebius of Caesarea, one of Arius’ main supporters, but also the most respected theologian of that time. Since Constantine’s religious advisor (Ossius) chaired this meeting, that meeting was approved by Constantine. In other words, even before Nicaea, Constantine had taken Alexander’s part.

Called the Nicene Council – Constantine called the Nicene Council. Nobody asked him to do it. He did it on his own initiative for his own purposes. It was Constantine’s meeting in his capacity as emperor.

Invented the General Council – In fact, Constantine invented the concept of a general council for the church. The church had never before such a meeting of representatives from all parts of the empire. Neither did it have the ability to call such a council. Only the emperor was able to call such a meeting.

Assigned the chairperson – To ensure that the Nicene Council remains under his control, the emperor appointed his religious advisor (Ossius) as chairperson. Ossius acted as Constantine’s agent.

Sided with Alexander – It is often correctly stated that Arius had considerable support. Why then was the Nicene Creed, which was constructed as a deliberately anti-Arian document, rejected by only 2 of the 250-300 bishops? The reason was that Arius’ support was not support for him but support AGAINST Alexander. However, Alexander was victorious at Nicaea because the emperor had taken his part. If Constantine had not taken Alexander’s part, the meeting would have condemned Alexander; not Arius.

Enforced the term homoousios – At the time, the term homoousios (same substance) seemed especially objectionable to many people. It is not a Biblical term, was not part of the standard Christian language, but was borrowed from pagan philosophy and associated with Sabellianism. Therefore, Constantine’s domination of the Nicene Council is particularly revealed by the fact that he was able to force the inclusion of the term. He personally proposed, explained, and enforced the term.

Exile – The emperor was the only person who could exile a bishop and who could restore a bishop to his see. The emperor functioned as the real head of the church. The bishops knew the emperor would exile them to a different part of the empire if they did not accept the Creed. How many bishops would have voted against the Nicene Creed if exile was not hanging over their heads?

Enforced the Council’s decisions – After Nicaea, Constantine issued several letters attempting to enforce the Council’s decisions.

To Reconcile – Although Constantine took Alexander’s part and insisted on the term homoousios, his ultimate goal was to reconcile the quarreling parties.

To protect the Empire – As his letter to Arius and Alexander shows, Constantine did not call the Nicene Council because of a concern about right doctrine. He called the Council because a split in the church could also split the empire. His ultimate goal was also NOT to reconcile the schism in the church but to protect his empire. Constantine, therefore, invented and called the general council as a means of governing the church in the interest of the empire.

Conclusion – “Constantine took part in the Council of Nicaea and ensured that it reached the kind of conclusion which he thought best.” (Hanson, p. 850) The Emperor was in fact the head of the church.

– END OF SUMMARY –


Constantine

Legalized Christianity.

Religious freedom did not exist in the Roman Empire. The emperors decided which religions were allowed. After three centuries of persecution by the Roman authorities, Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313. [Show More]

Wrote to Arius and Alexander.

However, only a few years after Christianity was legalized, a disagreement arose in Alexandria of Egypt between Arius (c. 250–336), a minister (presbyter or priest), and his bishop Alexander, about the nature of Christ. [Show More]

Alexander removed Arius from office, and in 321 a synod at Alexandria denounced Arius. But that did not end the Controversy. Consequently, before the Council of Nicaea, the emperor attempted to intervene. Even before Constantine understood the matter, he wrote to Alexander and Arius, “dismissing the controversy as trivial and commanding them to be reconciled. [Show More]

In other words, Constantine intervened even before he understood the dispute. This shows that he did not intervene because of a concern for right doctrine, but because division in the church threatened the unity of the empire. [Show More]

Approved the Council at Antioch.

A few months before the Council of Nicaea, an “anti-Arian Council” was held in Antioch, consisting mainly of people who sympathized with Alexander. (Hanson, p. 130-1, 147, 149) It provisionally excommunicated Eusebius of Caesarea, one of Arius’ main supporters, but also the most respected theologian of that time. Since Constantine’s religious advisor (Ossius) chaired this meeting, we can assume that Constantine approved that meeting. This means that, even before Nicaea, Constantine had taken Alexander’s part in his dispute with Arius. [Show More]

That meeting drafted a pro-Alexander Statement of Faith. [Show More]

It is important to note that this Statement of Faith did not mention the term homoousios or the ousia of God. (Hanson, p. 146) This shows that this was not a word which Alexander regarded as important. 

At the meeting, “Eusebius of Palestinian Caesarea,” the most respected theologian at the time but a supporter of Arius, was provisionally “excommunicated.” (Hanson, p. 146) Eusebius was not a follower of Arius. He supported Arius because he “thought the theology of Alexander a greater menace than that of Arius.” (Williams, p. 173) [Show More]

Called the Nicene Council.

Constantine’s letter failed to unite the warring factions. Consequently. Constantine then called the Nicene Council. Nobody asked him to do it. He did it on his own initiative for his own purposes. It was the emperor’s meeting in his capacity as emperor. [Show More]

Invented the General Council.

In fact, Constantine invented the concept of a General Church Council. A ‘general’ or ‘ecumenical’ council, in theory, is a meeting of representatives from all of Christendom. Never before did the church have such a meeting. [Show More]

It is, therefore, not valid to say that the emperors became involved in the general church councils. The reality is that Constantine invented the concept of a general council. [Show More]

Neither did the Church have the ability to call such a council. Only the emperor was able to call such a meeting. [Show More]

Appointed the chairperson.

Ossius of Cordova chaired the Council. Ossius was the bishop of the “obscure” see of Cordova (Hanson, p. 155). His inferior position in the church would not have allowed him to chair. But he was the emperor’s religious advisor. The emperor appointed him as chairperson to ensure that the Council remained under his control. Ossius acted as Constantine’s agent. [Show More]

Similarly, in the 381 Council of Constantinople, Emperor Theodosius assigned one of his unbaptized civil servants as chairperson and as bishop of Constantinople. Appointing the chairpersons was one of the ways in which the emperors managed the meetings to ensure the ‘right’ outcome. [Show More]

Sided with Alexander.

It is often correctly stated that Arius had much support. But then, why was the Nicene Creed, constructed as a deliberately anti-Arian document, accepted by all 250-300 bishops except 2? [Show More]

In the traditional account, Arius was easily rejected because he opposed the orthodox view. [Show More]

In reality:

The dispute between Alexander and Arius continued the Controversy that raged in the third century.

The core dispute in both centuries was whether the Son is a distinct Person. They used the term hypostasis for a distinct existence.

Arius was a conservative and represented the majority view which held that the Son is a distinct Person (a hypostasis). But Arius also had some extreme views for which he had only a limited number of true followers.

Alexander’s theology view was similar to Sabellianism, which was already rejected in the third century as heresy, which claimed that the Father and Son are a single Person. [Show More]

It was why the majority supported Arius. But it wasn’t support for Arius’ sometimes extreme view. It was support AGAINST Alexander. [Show More]

The main reason Arius was rejected so easily is that the emperor took Alexander’s part in the dispute and compelled the Council to accept the Creed. If Alexander did not have the support of the emperor’s religious advisor and, therefore, the emperor’s support, the meeting might have condemned Alexander’s theology; not Arius’.

[Show More]

Enforced the term homoousios.

At the time, the term homoousios (same substance) seemed especially objectionable to many people. It is not a Biblical term, was not part of the standard Christian language, but was borrowed from pagan philosophy and associated with Sabellianism. Therefore, Constantine’s domination of the Nicene Council is particularly revealed by the fact that he was able to force the inclusion of the term. He personally proposed, explained, and enforced the term.

A Surprising Inclusion – Homoousios (same substance) was a surprising innovation in the Nicene Creed. Most delegates at the Council had considerable concerns about the term because it was not part of the standard Christian language of the day, is not a Biblical term but was borrowed from Greek philosophy, and was associated with the heresy of Sabellianism. (See here.)

“’Homoousios’ and ‘from the essence of the Father’ were added to the creed by Constantine himself, bearing witness to the extent of his influence at the council.” 4(Jörg Ulrich. Nicaea and the West. Vigiliae Christianae 51, no. 1 (1997): 10-24. 15.) See here for more detail.

Explained – Constantine’s domination of that council is also revealed by the fact that the council allowed him to explain the term’s meaning and that they accepted his explanation. A major concern was that it implies that God has a body and that the Son was begotten through a material process. Constantine insisted that the term has no material connotations. (See – here)

Enforced – Emperor Constantine not only proposed but used his influence to enforce the inclusion of the term. He “pressed for its inclusion.” (Hanson, p. 211) (See – here)

Conclusion – That Constantine was able to convince the meeting to accept this highly suspicious term reflects his dominant role:

“Overawed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the creed, many of them much against their inclination.” 5Britannica, 1971 edition, Vol. 6, “Constantine,” p. 386

Exiled those who refused to sign.

The emperor was the only person who could exile a bishop and who could restore a bishop to his see. The emperor functioned as the real head of the church. The bishops knew the emperor would exile them to a different part of the empire if they did not accept the Creed. How many bishops would have voted against the Nicene Creed if exile was not hanging over their heads?

That only two bishops refused to accept the Nicene Creed is often mentioned as a great victory for Nicene Christology, but few mention that the bishops knew that they would lose their jobs and be exiled if they did not accept the Creed. The question is, how many bishops would have voted against the Nicene Creed if exile were not hanging over their heads and if the emperor did not employ his considerable position and interpersonal skills to bring the meeting to unanimity?

In the Roman Empire, the standard penalty for bishops for deviant teachings was exile but only the emperor was able to exile the bishops. For example:

“Two bishops who refused to sign the Creed … were deposed by the Council and exiled by the Emperor. Arius himself was exiled.” (Hanson, p. 162-3)

“Secundus of Ptolemais and Theonas of Marmarike, both Libyan sees, refused to sign N, were deposed by the Council and exiled by Constantine.” (Hanson, p. 172) [Show More]

Since the emperor was the only person who could exile a bishop, the emperor was also the only person who could restore a bishop to his see. For example, the bishops asked Constantine – not the church – to restore them:

“The third letter of Arius is … sent to the Emperor Constantine by Arius and Euzoius who are in exile and are in this letter pleading for a return from exile and a re-admission to the Church (which they presumably imagine that Constantine can effect).” (Hanson, p. 8) [Show More]

In a letter, “Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea” asked “some unnamed bishops … to petition Constantine for their recall.” (Hanson, p. 175)

“Within two or three years, however, Arius and the others exiled by Constantine were recalled, it seems at the behest of the Emperor.” (Ayres, p. 19) [Show More]

Since it was the emperor who had the right to decide who should be exiled and who should be restored, the emperor, in this regard, functioned as the real head of the church.

Enforced the council’s decisions.

After Nicaea, Constantine issued several letters attempting to enforce the Council’s decisions.

After Nicaea, “Constantine … issued a number of letters attempting to enforce its decisions.” (Ayres, p. 88) “Constantine in other respects behaved despotically towards the church when he thought it necessary. He writes to the churches after Nicaea like a mediaeval Pope.” (Hanson, p. 850)

CONSTANTINE’S PURPOSE

To reconcile the opposing parties.

Although Constantine took Alexander’s part and insisted on the term homoousios, his ultimate goal was to reconcile the quarreling parties.

“The Emperor, rightly or wrongly, thought himself called to foster and protect the Church, and therefore to prevent as far as he could the damage that was caused by controversy and schism.” (Hanson, p. 153)

We see evidence of the emperor’s desire for reconciliation in a number of ways. For example:

Eusebius of Caesarea “was the most learned and one of the best-known of the 300-odd bishops present” (Hanson, p. 159) but he had recently been provisionally excommunicated by the “anti-Arian Council” in Antioch (Hanson, p. 131). “The excommunication of a man so universally respected for his scholarship as Eusebius of Caesarea must have given him (the emperor) a shock. He wanted to be in a position to see that the anti-Arian party at the Council did not do anything that would further exasperate the division already existing in the Church … but rather heal it.” (Hanson, p. 153) Therefore, after Eusebius had read his creed, the “Emperor himself was the first to witness that it was entirely orthodox.” (Hanson, p. 160)

Eustathius mentioned that his radical anti-Arius party, after an Arian document was read, was reduced to silence “using the cause of reconciliation as a pretext.” (Hanson, p. 160) In other words, although the emperor sided with Alexander, he did not allow Alexander’s party unlimited power.

As discussed, Constantine did his best to explain homoousios in such a way that even the Eusebians (the so-called Arians) could accept the term.

He paid all expenses and surrounded the delegates with honor. This includes the honor of the personal presence of the emperor of the entire empire.

Eusebius of Caesarea described the emperor as genuinely seeking for reconciliation:

“He surrounded the Fathers (of the Council), or rather the prophets of God, with every honour and called them a second time and again acted patiently as a mediator to the same people and again distinguished them by gifts, and he offered board and lodging in a letter and confirmed and put his seal to the decisions of the synod.” (Hanson, p. 175)

To protect the Empire.

As his letter to Arius and Alexander shows, Constantine did not call the Nicene Council because of a concern about right doctrine. He called the Council because a split in the church could also split the empire. His ultimate goal was also NOT to reconcile the schism in the church but to protect his empire. Constantine, therefore, invented and called the general council as a means of governing the church in the interest of the empire.

The Roman Empire was very large and consisted of many different and diverse nations. The main task of the emperors was to keep the empire united. In this regard, religion was a powerful force. Religion had a strong power over the people. Religious diversity could split the empire apart. State-supported religious uniformity, on the other hand, could help to unite the empire. The Roman emperors, therefore, used religion to help them to keep the empire united.

For example, as already mentioned, the emperors decided which religions were allowed.

As another example, in 380, Emperor Theodosius commanded ALL Roman citizens to believe in the Trinity. He made Trinitarian Christianity the State Religion of the Roman Empire.

That was why, before Christianity was legalized, the empire persecuted Christians and why, after Trinitarian Christianity was made the State Religion, the persecution of Christians resumed.

For the same reason, the emperors could not afford disunity in the authorized religion. Therefore, after Christianity was legalized in 313, the Christian emperors controlled it. By maintaining control over the church, the emperors maintained control over the people.

“Constantine’s attitude reflects deeply embedded Roman attitudes about the social function of religion.” (Ayres, p. 88)

Constantine, therefore, called the council because he was concerned that the controversy in the church may threaten the unity of the empire. He invented and called the general council as a means of managing the church:

“The Council of Nicea was first and foremost an attempt by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great to keep his empire from splitting.” (Pavao, Paul. Decoding Nicea (p. 3). Kindle Edition.) [Show More]

“Constantine himself had become sole emperor only in 324 (after having ruled the western half since 310–12), and he seems to have promoted Christianity as a unifying religion for the empire.” (Ayres, p. 87)

“The same desire to preserve unity within the church, rather than the protection of any creed or interpretation of Christian doctrine, led Constantine to intercede for the settlement of the Arian controversy. … Believing ‘disunity in the church’ a danger to the state ‘more grievous than any kind of war’.” (Boyd, p37 or The Ecclesiastical Edicts of the Theodosian Code, p37)

“Since Constantine desired that the church should contribute to the social and moral strength of the empire, religious dissension was a menace to the public welfare.” (Boyd, p34). 6(The Ecclesiastical Edicts of the Theodosian Code)

CONCLUSIONS

“Constantine took part in the Council of Nicaea and ensured that it reached the kind of conclusion which he thought best.” (Hanson, p. 850) The Emperor was in fact the head of the church.

Constantine sided with the Alexander-faction, called the Council on his own initiative, strategically positioned the council at Nicaea so he could participate, 7(Drake, H. A. “The Impact of Constantine on Christianity.” Cambridge University Press, 2005. 111) paid all expenses, appointed his religious advisor as chairperson, welcomed the delegates, surrounded them with every honour, opened the Council with an address, actively guided the discussions, proposed and enforced the key word Homoousios despite great resistance, actively sought reconciliation between the factions, warned them that those who do not accept the Creed will be exiled, exiled those who refused the Creed, and enforced the Council’s decisions. [Show More]

Consequently, the Nicene Creed, particularly its more controversial aspects, does not reflect the view of the church majority at the time but specifically what the emperor thought best:

“Constantine took part in the Council of Nicaea and ensured that it reached the kind of conclusion which he thought best.” (Hanson, p. 850)

This established the pattern for the rest of the century. The church made and implemented its ‘ecumenical’ decisions through the civil government of the Roman Empire, represented by the emperors:

“Before Constantine, the Church was simply not in a position to make universally binding and enforceable decisions. From Nicaea onwards the Church decided, and communicated its decisions, through the official network of the empire.” (Williams, p. 90)

In that respect, church and state were united. “Simonetti remarks that the Emperor was in fact the head of the church” (Hanson, p. 849).


OTHER ARTICLES

FOOTNOTES

  • 1
  • 2
    (Davis, Leo Donald. The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology. Vol. 21. Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical Press, 1990. 55)
  • 3
    (A Short History of Christian Doctrine, Bernard Lohse, 1966, p51-53)
  • 4
    (Jörg Ulrich. Nicaea and the West. Vigiliae Christianae 51, no. 1 (1997): 10-24. 15.)
  • 5
    Britannica, 1971 edition, Vol. 6, “Constantine,” p. 386
  • 6
    (The Ecclesiastical Edicts of the Theodosian Code)
  • 7
    (Drake, H. A. “The Impact of Constantine on Christianity.” Cambridge University Press, 2005. 111)