Why did Theodosius succeed in ending the Arian Controversy?

Not a Church Decision

In the traditional account of the 4th-century Arian Controversy, the Council of Constantinople in the year 381 finally rejected Arianism and put an end to that controversy. However, the Controversy was brought to an end by an emperor, namely, by Emperor Theodosius. Show More

Edit of Thessalonica

The Controversy was mainly between Nicenes and Arians. While Nicene theology dominated in the West, Arianism dominated in the East. Theodosius became the Eastern Emperor in 379 but was a strong Nicene supporter. Already in 380, the year before the Council, through a Roman Law (the Edict of Thessalonica), with the support of the Western emperor, he made the pro-Nicene version of the Christian faith the official and sole legal religion of the Roman Empire. In the edict, he named bishops Damasus of Rome and Peter of Alexandria, the main defenders of Nicene theology, after Athanasius died in 373.ย This was not a church decree but applied to all Roman citizens. Show More

That edict outlawed Arianism and said of those who would contravene it that they would suffer the punishment which Roman authority shall decide to inflict (Bettenson, p.22).

Bishop of Constantinople

Having announced the State Religion of the Roman Empire, Theodosius assumed unilateral control of who the leading bishops would be:

At the time, the bishop of Constantinople was an Arian (a Homoian – Demophilus). On 24 November 380, still before the Council of Constantinople and two days after he had arrived in Constantinople for the first time, after giving him the opportunity to accept the Nicene faith, which he declined, Emperor Theodosius drove Demophilus out of the city (Hanson, pp. 804-5).

Theodosius then also unilaterally accepted Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers and the leader of the relatively small Nicene community in the city, as de facto bishop of Constantinople, the Empire’s capital city (Ayres, p. 253).

Theodosius ordered the Arian Lucius, who was at that time the bishop of Alexandria, to be chased out of that cityย (Hanson, p. 805).

After Gregory Nazianzen had resigned during the Council, Theodosius replaced him with Nectarius, who was the equivalent of the major of the city, but who was still unbaptized. It was the Council that rubber-stamped it, but since Nectarius was still not baptized, it clearly was the emperor’s decision. Nectarius was hastily baptised and ordained (Hanson, p. 811).

Further Edicts

In the next year (381), Theodosius issued two more edicts, one before and one after the Council:

In a second edict in January 381, still before the council, Theodosius forbade non-Nicenes from settling in the cities (Boyd). That edict also determined that heretics are not allowed to meet for worship within the walls of any town (Hanson, p. 805; Ayres, 259).

In the third edict, immediately after the Council in 381, Theodosius confiscated all Arian churches and gave them to Nicene bishops (Ayres, 252; Hanson, pp. 820-1).

The Council

The Council was under the complete control of the Emperor. He did not attend personally but monitored the developments closely (Hanson, p. 806):

The first act of the Council was to affirm the appointment of Gregory of Nazianzus, whom the emperor already previously accepted as the de facto bishop of Constantinople (Hanson, p. 806).

His control over the Council is further confirmed by his appointment of Nectarius, the unbaptized ‘major’ of the city, as presiding officer after the first presiding officer (Meletius) died and after the second (Gregory) resigned (Hanson, p. 807; Ayres, p. 254-5).

The Council was not representative. Since all other views have already been outlawed, and only Nicene supporters were invited and admitted. Specifically, only people who supported Meletian, who followed the Cappadocians, and who was the first presiding officer, were invited (Hanson, p. 806). Show More

Gregory of Nazianzus, the leader of the Nicene party in the city, who presided after Meletius died, โ€œhad strongly opposed any compromise with the Homoiousiansโ€ (Ayres, p. 255). The Homoiousians were the ‘Arians’ closest to the Homoousians (the supporters of the Nicene Creed). Therefore, if Gregory vehemently opposed any compromise with them, he also opposed compromise with any of the other Arian views.

Summary

It was not the Council of Constantinople in the year 381 that finally rejected Arianism and put an end to the controversy but the emperors. Already in 380, the year before the Council, the emperors made the pro-Nicene version of Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, outlawed Arianism, and promised dissenters the punishment that Roman authority would decide to inflict.ย 

The emperors also appointed the bishops. Emperor Theodosius drove the Arian bishop of Constantinople out of the city and replaced him with a pro-Nicene bishop. And, after that pro-Nicene bishop had resigned, Emperor Theodosius replaced him with one of his unbaptized government officials as bishop of the Empire’s capital.

Through further edicts, Emperor Theodosius forbade non-Nicenes from settling in any city or town, prohibited Arian worship meetings, and confiscated all Arian churches, giving them to Nicene bishops. The Arian Controversy began soon after persecution ceased and ended when persecution resumed.ย 

The โ€˜Ecumenicalโ€™ Council was under the complete control of the Emperor. For example, it affirmed the emperorโ€™s appointment of a pro-Nicene bishop and accepted the emperorโ€™s unbaptized government official as chair.ย The Council was also not representative. Since all other views were already outlawed, and only Nicene supporters were invited and admitted.ย 


What no other Emperor did

Theodosius succeeded where other emperors failed because he did what no other Emperor had done:

He unilaterally made Roman Law to define the sole legal religion of the empire. No other emperor did something similar. Other emperors called and manipulated church councils to force the church to comply with their wishes.

He unilaterally exiled the bishop of Constantinople (the Empireโ€™s capital) and appointed a pro-Nicene as bishop. The other emperors merely influenced and manipulated synods and councils to achieve that purpose.

His persecution of โ€˜hereticsโ€™ was far worse than any other Christian emperor. No other emperor forbade โ€˜hereticsโ€™ from living and worshiping in the cities or towns. His persecution may be compared to Diocletianโ€™s Great Persecution of AD 303-313, which was Romeโ€™s final attempt to destroy Christianity. Show More

Theodosius not only legislated the Empire’s official faith, but he also unilaterally decided who complied. He required all non-Nicene Christian factions to submit their theologies in writing to him, and he decided which complied. Show More


Backed by a Consensus?

Hanson believed that Theodosius was successful because he was backed by a consensus.ย Show More

I am not sure that a โ€œconsensusโ€ existed, as an overview of the history of the Controversy will confirm:

‘Arianism’ (the view that the Son is a distinct divine Person, subordinate to the Father) was the traditional teaching of the church during the first three centuries and into the fourth. This was the view in the East, where the church originated and where the bulk of the church resided during the first three centuries.ย Show More

However, in the middle of the third century, Rome, represented by its bishop Dionysius, taught the competing view, namely, that the Father and Son are a single hypostasis (Person). Show More

When the fourth century began, while Arius maintained the traditional Alexandrian view (the Son is distinct), Alexander by then had accepted the Roman view that the Father and Son are a single Person (hypostasis). Show More

At Nicaea, Alexander’s ‘one Person’ view dominated because the emperor took his part. Show More

However, in the decade after Nicaea, the decisions at Nicaea were effectively overturned. All exiled Arians were allowed to return, and all leading Nicenes were exiled. After that, the term homoousios disappeared. While Constantine remained alive, he ensured unity in the church. Show More

However, after he had died in 337, the Empire divided into East and West. This allowed the Western Church to return to its Monarchian roots, teaching that the Father and Son are one hypostasis, meaning, one Person with a single mind. This can be seen in the Serdica Manifesto of 433, the only Western Creed that we have from the 4th century that was not emperor-manipulated. On the other hand, the Eastern Church remained ‘Arian,’ teaching that the Son is a distinct Person (a hypostasis) with a distinct mind. This can be seen in the Eastern Dedication Creed of 431. Show More

In the 350s, the Empire was once again under a single emperor (Constantius), who forced the West to accept an ‘Arian’ creed. Consequently, Jerome wrote in 360: “The whole world groaned and marveled that it was Arian” (Lienhard).ย Show More

For much of the next two decades, the Empire was again divided into East and West, again allowing the West to return to its Monarchian views. But the East remained ‘Arian.’ย Show More

During these decades, a severe conflict developed within the pro-Nicene camp. While the Cappadocians taught, like the Arians, that the Son is a distinct Person, Athanasius and the Western Nicenes continued to teach that the Son is part of the Father. Show More

Theodosiusโ€™ edict reveals that he was a Western Nicene. He took the Western Nicene view that the Father and Son are a single Person. Show More

So, when Theodosius became emperor in the East, outlawed Arianism, prohibited Arians from living and worshiping in the cities and towns, and confiscated their churches, there was no consensus, as Hanson claimed. If there was such a consensus, why did he have to issue a Roman Law, exile the homoian bishop of the capital, and severely persecute the Arians?


Consensus was not the Issue.

To some extent, the question of a consensus is irrelevant because the decision of what the church must believe was always the decision of the emperor, irrespective of a consensus.ย Show More

Church and State blended. Constantine established the precedent for imperial intervention in ecclesiastical affairs. Theodosius and Gratian finally and decisively fixed the alliance of Church and State. Show More

The Church decided, and communicated its decisions, through the official network of the empire. Show More

For example, only emperors could call church councils. Everybody recognised the right of an Emperor to call a council, or even to veto or quash its being called. Even the bishop of Rome was not able to call a general council on his own authority. Show More

The emperors allowed the bishops political and social power. But that means that their election was more than a church matter. Consequently, the emperors exercised a direct influence on the election of bishops.ย ย Show More

Theodosius did not succeed.

However, lastly. Theodosius was not the end of Arianism. The controversy continued into the fifth century. Show More

During the time during the 4th century when ‘Arianism’ dominated, the church sent missionaries to the Gothic nations. The Goth Ulfilas translated part of the Bible into the Gothic language and had success in converting the Goths to Arian Christianity.ย Show More

The conversion of the Goths led to the conversion of other Germanic nations, such as the Vandals, Langobards, Svevi, and Burgundians, to Arian Christianity. Show More

So, when Theodosius in 380 made Nicene Christianity the sole religion of the Romans, the Germanic nations remained Arian. Consequently, after the fall of Rome in the fifth century, Europe was ruled by Arian nations. In the map, red reflect Arian areas and Green Nicene areas. Show More

It was only after the Roman Empire again regained control of the Western Empire in the sixth century that Arianism was finally brought to its knees (see here).

Conclusion

Emperor Theodosius succeeded where others failed because he did what no other emperor had done. He determined the sole religion of the Roman Empire through Roman Law, without consulting a church council, forbade heretics from living in the cities and towns, and from meeting for worship, and confiscated the churches of dissenting groups.

However, Theodosius did not succeed. His laws applied only to the Romans. In the next century, Germanic took control of the Western Empire, and they were Arians. By the end of the fifth century, Europe was Arian again.


Other Articles

Emperor Theodosius made Nicene theology the State Religion.

Overview

Theodosius was a military commander. Western Emperor Gratian appointed him as Eastern Emperor in January 379.

In the Christian Roman Empire, the Emperor was the Head of the Church and the ultimate judge in doctrinal disputes. The emperors controlled the Church because they believed a divided Church could divide the Empire. Consequently, the Church and State became one. Bishops received judicial authority but functioned under the authority of the Empire.

When Theodosius came to power, in what is known as the Meletian Schism, the Nicenes were divided between the Western view that the Father and Son are a single hypostasis (Person) and the Eastern (Cappadocian) view that the Son is a distinct hypostasis. (The view that God is both one and three (one Being but three Persons) did not yet exist.)

In 380, the emperors issued the Edict of Thessalonica jointly, requiring all to accept Western ‘one hypostasis’ theology. The Edict made this the sole legal religion of the Empire. It was not a Church Creed but a Roman Law applicable to all Roman citizens.

The Edict outlawed all other factions of Christianity, with threats of punishment. In the subsequent years, Theodosius eliminated opposing views through severe persecution, beginning before the Second Ecumenical Council of 381. He prohibited “heretics” from settling in cities, from owning or using churches, and from meeting for worship in towns or cities. He seized churches that belonged to ‘heretics’ and gave the buildings to Nicene bishops.

Theodosius acted as the Head of the Church. For example, he himself appointed the Bishop of Constantinople and decided which factions complied with his law.ย 

Theodosius was the turning point after Arianism dominated most of the 4th century, not the Council of Constantinople of 381. Already in the year before that council, in February 380, Theodosius made Nicene Christianity the State Religion and outlawed Arianism. Therefore, only Nicene Christians were allowed to attend.

It was not even a Church meeting. It was a meeting of selected Church officials through which Theodosius ensured that his policies be implemented in the Church.ย 

All previous emperors attempted to ensure unity. Theodosius succeeded through ferocious coercion. The Arian Controversy began soon after Christianity was legalized, and Roman persecution was suspended. But the Controversy ended when non-Nicene Christianity was outlawed, leading to a resurgence of Roman persecution, now Christian-on-Christian persecution.

Authors Quoted

This article series is primarily based on the books and articles on the Arian Controversy of the last 50 years.

Lewis Ayres, Nicaea and its legacy, An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology, 2004

R.P.C. Hanson, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God โ€“ The Arian Controversy 318-381, 1987

Boyd, The Ecclesiastical Edicts of the Theodosian Code, 1905

Emperor Theodosius

Theodosius was a military commander. Show More

In 378, in the war on the Eastern Front, the previous Eastern Emperor (Valens) was killed, and a large part of the Roman Army was destroyed. In this time of crisis, the young Western Emperor Gratian made Theodosius, aged 32 or 33, the Eastern Emperor in January 379. Theodosius later became emperor of the entire Empire and ruled until he died in 395. He was the last emperor to rule the entire Roman Empire. At his death, the empire became permanently divided between the West and the East. Show More

Christian Emperors

With respect to the role of the emperors in the Christian Roman Empire in general:

The Emperor was the Head of the Church and the ultimate judge in doctrinal disputes.ย 

In the Christian Roman Empire, the emperors determined what the Church must believe. Show More

Emperors controlled the Church because a divided Church could divide the Empire.ย 

The Roman Emperors viewed religious disagreements as a menace because disunity in the Church also threatened the unity of the Empire. On the other hand, a unified Church helps to unify the Empire. For that reason, the emperors attempted to resolve disagreements, not to protect some doctrine. Show More

Church and State became one, functioning under the authority of the Emperor.ย 

Believing that the church must contribute to the social and moral strength of the empire, the emperors gave bishops a powerful place in the judicial system, equal to and even exceeding that of civil judges. In this way, the State and Church blended, and the hierarchy of bishops functioned as part of the Roman system of government.ย Show More

Theodosius’ Religious Policy

The Nicenes were divided between ‘one Person’ and ‘three Persons’ views.ย 

In the period leading up to Theodosius, in what is known as the Meletian Schism, a dispute in the fourth century between two Pro-Nicene groups, the two most prominent Pro-Nicenes of that era found themselves in opposition. While Athanasius supported the view that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are a single hypostasis (Person), Basil of Caesarea maintained three hypostases; three distinct Being:

The Western pro-Nicenes, led by Athanasius (died 373), Damasus of Rome, and Peter of Alexandria, believed that Father, Son, and Spirit are a single Person (hypostasis). See hereย for a discussion of Athanasius’ view. He presented himself as the preserver of Biblical orthodoxy. In reality, if Sabellianism is defined as the belief that the Father and Son are one hypostasis (a single Person), he was a Sabellian because he believed that the Son is part of the Father. Show More

The Eastern pro-Nicenes (the Cappadocians) maintained that the Father, Son, and Spirit are three distinct Persons (three equal hypostases). See here for a discussion of Basil’s view. In the orthodox Trinity doctrine, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are one Being (one indivisible substance). However, Basil of Caesarea, a prominent pro-Nicene, taught that there are three distinct Beings (three substances).

It is called the Meletian Schism because it manifested particularly in a dispute over the rightful bishop of Antioch: Meletius, who believed the Son is a distinct Person, or Paulinus, who thought the Father and Son are a single Person. Therefore, the main issue was the number of divine hypostases. Show More

The view that God is both one and three (one Being but three Persons) did not yet exist.ย 

During the Arian Controversy, while some claimed that the Father, Son, and Spirit are three Persons (three hypostases), others held that they are one Person (one hypostasis). The concept that God is both one and three resulted from later theological theorizing. Show More

The emperors issued the Edict of Thessalonica jointly.ย 

In 380, the year after he became emperor and the year before the Council of Constantinople, Theodosiusย issued the Edict of Thessalonicaย jointly with the Western Emperor Gratian, implying that it applied throughout the Empire.ย Show More

The Edict required all to accept Western ‘one hypostasis’ theology.ย 

The Edict shows that the emperors adopted the Western ‘one hypostasis’ view:

(1) While the Cappadocians believed in three hypostases, the Edict describes the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as โ€œthe single deityโ€ (Ayres, 251).ย Show More

(2) The Edict identifies โ€œDamasus, bishop of Rome, and Peter, Athanasius’ successor in Alexandriaโ€ (Ayres, p. 251) as norms of its theology. By then, Athanasius was dead, and Damasus and Peter were the leaders of Western ‘one Person’ theology.ย Show More

(3) The Nicene term homoousios (same substance) can mean โ€˜one substance,โ€™ which is how the Westerners understood it, or it can mean two distinct substances of the same type, which is how the Cappadocians understood it (See Basil). Theodosiusโ€™ second decree, a year later, in January 381, explicitly describes the Father, Son, and Spirit as a single undivided substance, which was the Western understanding.ย Show More

However, Theodosius’ later decrees were more aligned with Cappadocian theology. Show More

The Edict made this the sole legal religion of the Empire.ย 

Theodosius did not unite Church and State. It was already united. However, there was a division between the Western and Eastern Churches, supported by the views of the Western and Eastern emperors. But Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, became convinced of the Western view and made it the only legal religion, outlawing all other factions. It was not a Church Creed and was not addressed to Christians. It was an official Roman law, applicable to all Roman citizens.ย Show More

Threats of Punishment

The Edict of Thessalonica determined that only Nicene Christians could call themselves “catholic” and call their places of worship “churches.” It described all other people as heretics, โ€œfoolish madmen,โ€ and “out of their minds and insane.” Show More

That edict authorized imperial punishment for the “heretics:”

It said of those who contravene the Edict: “They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will of Heaven we shall decide to inflict” (Henry Bettenson, editor, Documents of the Christian Church, 1967, p. 22).

โ€œHeretics would be punishedโ€ (Hanson, p. 402).

Severe Persecution

Through severe persecution, both before and after the Council of Constantinople, Theodosius eliminated ‘Arianism’ from among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire.

In subsequent years, Theodosius implemented the Edict of Thessalonica through further decrees. In January 381, still before the 381 Council, Theodosius prohibited “heretics” from settling in cities, from owning or using churches, and from meeting for worship in towns or cities. Show More

Theodosius’ third decree, issued in 382 (the year after the Council of Constantinople), seized churches that belonged to ‘heretics’ and gave the buildings to Nicene bishops. This caused great disturbances and riots. Show More

The Controversy began when persecution ended and ended when persecution resumed.ย 

The Arian Controversy began soon after Christianity was legalized, and Roman persecution of the Church was suspended. But the Controversy ended when non-Nicene Christianity was outlawed, leading to a resurgence of Roman persecution, now manifesting as Christian-on-Christian persecution.

Head of the Church.

Theodosius acted as Head of the Church.

He appointed the senior bishops.

Having announced the State Religion of the Roman Empire, Theodosius assumed complete and unilateral control of who the leading bishops would be:ย 

At the time, the incumbent bishop of Constantinople was an Arian (a Homoian – Demophilus). In the same year that the Edict was issued, two days after Theodosius had arrived in Constantinople, on 24 November 380, and still before the Council of Constantinople, he expelled Demophilus and also chased Lucius, who was at that time bishop of Alexandria, out of that city.ย Show More

Theodosius appointed Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers and the leader of the relatively small Nicene community in the city, as bishop of Constantinople. When Gregory resigned, Theodosius made an unbaptized government official both chair of the Council of Constantinople and the bishop of Constantinople.ย 

He himself decided which factions complied.

Theodosius not only defined the Empire’s official faith, but he also required all Christian factions to submit their theologies in writing to him, and he decided which complied. Show More

He perfected the unity of Church and State.ย 

The Nicene Church, with its hierarchy of bishops, became part of the Empire; the religious arm of the Empire. Show More

Turning Point

Theodosius, not the Council, was the turning point after Arianism dominated most of the 4th century.ย 

In the traditional account of the Arian Controversy, at the Second Ecumenical Council (the Council of Constantinople of 381), the Church finally accepted Nicene theology and rejected Arianism, which dominated the Church for most of the 4th century.

In reality, already in the year before that council, in February 380, the Roman Emperor Theodosius, through Roman Law – the Edict of Thessalonica – made Nicene Christianity the State Religion of the Roman Empire and outlawed and criminalized Arianism.ย 

The Second Ecumenical Council was not ecumenical.ย 

‘Ecumenicalโ€™ means it represents all Christian Churches and views, but this meeting was certainly not ecumenical. Since Theodosius had already made Nicene Christianity the State Religion of the Empire, banished the previous Homoian bishop of the capital, replaced him with a pro-Nicene theologian, and outlawed all non-Nicene views, with the threats of punishment, only Nicene Christians were allowed to attend. Not even Homoiousians, the Arian faction most similar to the Nicenes, were allowed.ย Show More

Furthermore, Theodosius summoned the so-called โ€˜ecumenicalโ€™ Council of Constantinople of the year 381, not the church. It was not a Church meeting. It was the emperor’s meeting by which he ensured that the Church implement his religious policy. It can only be regarded as a church meeting if one accepts that the emperor was the head of the church.

Gregory resigned during the council. To ensure complete control of the Council, Theodosius then took the unprecedented step of appointing an unbaptized government official (Nectarius) as chairperson and as bishop of Constantinople, the capital of the Empire. (Hanson, p. 322) Show More

The fact that this Council is classified as the Second Ecumenical Council exemplifies how the traditional account of the Arian Controversy is distorted. Show More

All previous emperors attempted to ensure unity. Theodosius succeeded through ferocious coercion.ย 

All or most emperors sought unity in the church because division would threaten the unity of the Empire as well. However, all previous emperors failed to achieve lasting unity. We may ask why Theodosius succeeded where others failed. All emperors manipulated councils and exiled bishops, but only Theodosius:

      • Made a law to define the only legal theology,
      • Formally outlawed other views with threats of punishment,ย 
      • Appointed bishops unilaterally.

Furthermore, Theodosius’s persecution far exceeds that of the previous emperors in ferocity. Show More


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